Doctoral education from its medieval foundations to today's globalisation and standardisation

The doctorate, as a ritualised form of evaluation, has existed for more than eight centuries—initially linked to Western medieval forms knowledge production framed by religion, and the professional training lawyers doctors. It nearly disappeared at end modern era. Recast requirement academic professions, it proceeded play an important role in new became key scientific research development 19th 20th centuries. Since less half century ago, doctoral education gone through tremendous changes due both globalisation standardisation higher public policies designed encourage transfers from academia society large. Doctoral become crucial part transfer into broader economy, but faces huge obstacles that can only be understood taking account history its transformations, anthropological played still plays, also controversial effect efforts standardise production, which goes against non-standard nature human creation.